> For the complete documentation index, see [llms.txt](https://isubasinghe.gitbook.io/isithas-wiki/llms.txt). Markdown versions of documentation pages are available by appending `.md` to page URLs; this page is available as [Markdown](https://isubasinghe.gitbook.io/isithas-wiki/computer_science/distributed_systems/operating_systems/processes_and_threads.md). # Processes and threads ## Basic idea A process is the OS's unit of resource allocation (address space, open files); a thread is its unit of scheduling. New processes are usually created by *fork* (duplicate) + *exec* (replace image), with copy-on-write avoiding the actual copy. ## Key facts * `fork()` duplicates address space; pages stay shared and read-only until written (copy-on-write). * Process creation in distributed OS uses transfer + location policies (where to run). * Process migration: cheap when code is architecture-independent and resources are migrate-able. A process encapsulates the basic resources of memory and processor time. It also encapsulates other higher level resources. Each process: * has an address space and has some amount of allocated memory. * consists of one or more threads that are given processor timem, including thread sychronization. * higher level resources such as open file descriptors. ## Creation of a new process The operating system usually provides a way to create processes. in UNIX the `fork` system call is used to **duplicate** the callers address space, creating a new address space for a new process. ### Copy on write When a new process is created via `fork`, the address space is copied. The new process code is identical and is usually read-only so that it can be shared in real memory and no actual copying of memory is required. This is fater and more efficient than making a copy. Copy on write is a technique that makes a copy of a memory region only when the new process actually writes to it. ## New processes on distributed systems In a distributed system there is a choice as to where the new process will be created on. In a distributed operating system, this choice is made by the operating system. The decision is largely a matter of policy and some categories are: * **transfer policy :** determines whether the new process is allocated locally or remotely. * **location policy :** determines which host, from a set of given hosts, the new process should be allocated on. The policy is often transparent to the user and will attempt to take into account such things as relative load across hosts, IPC, architectures and specialised resources that processes may require. ## Process migration Processes can be migrated from one host to another by copying their address space. Depending on the platform and on the resources that are in current use by the process, process migration can be more or less difficult. Process code is often CPU dependant, this obviously introduces heterogenity issues. --- # Agent Instructions This documentation is published with GitBook. GitBook is the documentation platform designed so that both humans and AI agents can read, navigate, and reason over technical content effectively. Learn more at gitbook.com. ## Querying This Documentation If you need additional information that is not directly available in this page, you can query the documentation dynamically by asking a question. Perform an HTTP GET request on the current page URL with the `ask` query parameter, and the optional `goal` query parameter: ``` GET https://isubasinghe.gitbook.io/isithas-wiki/computer_science/distributed_systems/operating_systems/processes_and_threads.md?ask=&goal= ``` `ask` is the immediate question: it should be specific, self-contained, and written in natural language. `goal` is optional and describes the broader end goal you are ultimately trying to accomplish on behalf of the user. GitBook uses it to tailor the answer towards what is most useful for that goal. The response will contain a direct answer to the question and relevant excerpts and sources from the documentation. Use this mechanism when the answer is not explicitly present in the current page, you need clarification or additional context, or you want to retrieve related documentation sections.